Friday, February 28, 2014

Lecture Four: Geography - The Land of the Bible






“The Mesopotamian Valley is the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and has been the home to many different cultural groups in ancient times.”

“In biblical times it was made up of Assyria in the north and Babylon in the south.”

The Sumerians


“The Sumerians established their culture and civilization in the southern part of the Mesopotamian Valley in the early part of the third millennium B.C.”

“Scholars regard the Sumerian civilization as the first significant civilization in the history of humanity.”

“Sumerians invented wedge-shaped writing called cuneiform and built cities such as Sumer, Eridu, Ur, Larsa, and Nippur.”

“The creation story Enuma Elish is an important product of Sumerian religious thinking.”

The Amorites

“The Amorites dominated virtually all parts of Mesopotamia and Syria-Palestine by the 18th century B.C.”

“They were a Semitic group who established the cities of Mari and Babylon as centers of their political power.”

“Mari discoveries include thousands of inscriptions that deal with legal, domestic, and business matters.”

“Scholars believe that Israel’s ancestors belonged to the Amorites.”

The Assyrians

“The Assyrians played a key role in the destiny of the nation of Israel in the 8th and 7th centuries B.C.”

“The northern part of Mesopotamia was the home of the Assyrians.”

“Asshur and Nineveh were the chief cities of Assyria.”

“The Assyrians launched an empire-building program in the 8th century B.C. under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III and gained political control over Syria, Israel, and even Egypt.”

“in the middle of the 7th century B.C., Assyria began to decline in power an lost control of its empire under the joint attack of Medes, Babylonians, and Scythians.”

“The Babylonians destroyed Nineveh in 612 B.C. and with that the Assyrians ceased to exist as a nation.”

The Babylonians

“The Babylonians became a major political power in the 7th century B.C.”

“The southern part of Mesopotamia came to be known as Babylonia.”

“The city of Babylon located on the Euphrates River was the most influential city of the Babylonians.”

“In 587 B.C. the Babylonians captured Jerusalem and forced the Jews to go into exile in Babylon.”

“The Jewish exile lasted until 539 B.C., when Babylon was taken over by the Persian Empire.”

“Cyrus, the Persian king, gave freedom to the Jews in exile, and he allowed them to return to their homeland. However, many Jewish communities continued to exist in Babylon even after the exile came to an end.”

The Persians

“The Persians became a major political power in the 6th century B.C. under the leadership of Cyrus.”

“Their home was in what is now modern-day Iran.”

“Cyrus incorporated the once powerful Medes and later the Babylonians into his empire.”

“The Persian Empire extended westward to include Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. The expansion eastward reached as far as India.”

“Eventually the Persians declined in strength and their empire later became part of the world that Alexander the Great conquered around 330 B.C.”


“The Old Testament mentions Egypt as the home of the people of Israel in their early part of her existence.”

“Israel, in her later history, remembered Egypt as the land of her bondage. Egypt continued to exert political power over Israel at various times. Israel’s kings often made alliances with Egypt, even though the prophets condemned such actions as returning to bandage and slavery.”

“A substantial number of the Jews made Egypt their home during the Babylonian invasion of Judah in 587 B.C. Later, Alexandria became a center of the Jewish life in Egypt.”

“The Egypt of the Old Testament is the northern part of the modern land of Egypt, also known as Lower Egypt or the Delta region.”

Old Kingdom Period

2900 – 2300 B.C.

“Age of the Pyramids”

During this time, Egypt led the world in architectural and scientific advancement.

First Intermediate Period

2300 – 2100 B.C.

Many power struggles between the Pharaohs of Lower and Upper Egypt

Eventually, the powers of Upper Egypt gained total control.

Middle Kingdom Period

2100 – 1710 B.C

Abraham shows up towards the end of this period.

Second Intermediate Period

1710 – 1550 B.C.

The Semitic Hyksos ruled for over 100 years.

Joseph and the rest of the family of Jacob (Israel) show up around this time.

The Egyptians eventually took back control from the Hyksos.

New Kingdom Period

1550 – 330 B.C.

Some of the most famous of Pharaohs including Tutankhamen (King Tut) ruled during this time period.

Egypt prospered greatly for a couple hundred years during this time, but gradually began to fall into decline due to many reasons, including poor leadership, drought, and other natural disasters.

Moses shows up towards the beginning of this period to initiate the Exodus from Egypt.


“Syria-Palestine is the most frequently mentioned region in the Old Testament.”

“This region is made up of countries such as Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan on the political map today.”

Canaanites

Before Israel entered into the land of Canaan (Palestine), the land was inhabited by many different groups of people known as the Canaanites.

“Cities like Jericho, Megiddo, Beth-Shan, Ai, Shechem, Gezer, and Lachish were centers of the Canaanite culture in the third millennium B.C.”

Philistines

“The Philistines were the primary inhabitants on the coastal plain southwest of Canaan, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea.”

“They came to this region from Crete or some other islands in the Mediterranean Sea around 1200 B.C.”

Biblical records state that the Philistines were a constant threat to the Israelites.

Phoenicians

“The Phoenicians inhabited the northwest area on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean.”

“They were traders and seagoing people who spread into Palestine and influenced the culture and religion of the Canaanites.”

Arameans

The Arameans made Aram or Syria their home during the second millennium B.C.

The ancestors of Israel (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob) maintained contact with this region.

The earliest confessional creed of Israel found in Deuteronomy 26:5-10 refers to the father of Israel (most likely Jacob) as “a wandering Aramean.”

The people of Israel had frequent border struggles with the Syrians/Arameans from the 10th through the 8th centuries B.C.

“The center of the state of the Arameans was Damascus, which still remains the capital of Syria today.”

Ammonites

The book of Genesis casts a negative light on the ancestry of the Ammonites, claiming that this people group came to exist through an incestuous relationship between Abraham’s nephew Lot and one of Lot’s two daughters.

“The Ammonites lived directly east of the Jordan valley, with Rabbath-Ammon (modern Amman) as their capital.”

The Ammonites maintained social and religious contact, including marriage relationships, with the Israelite population.

Moabites

The book of Genesis also casts a negative light on the ancestry of the Moabites, again claiming that these people came out of an incestuous relationship between Lot and his second daughter.

The Moabites were located south of the Ammonite territory.

Like the Ammonites, the Moabites also maintained social and religious contact, including marriage relationships, with Israel.

Probably the most famous Moabite in the Old Testament is Ruth, the great-grandmother of David, Israel’s greatest king.

Edomites

The Book of Genesis describes the Edomites as the descendants of Esau, Jacob’s twin brother.

The Edomites were considered some of Israel’s closest relatives and they were located directly south of Moab.

The Edomites were much more hostile towards Israel than were the Ammonites and Moabites. The close relationship of the Israelites and the Edomites and their deep hostility towards each other can be seen in the stories of the twin-brothers Jacob and Esau and their constant struggle with one another. Jacob was also known as Israel, and Esau was also known as Edom.

Midianites

“The Midianites occupied the land southeast of Edom.”

“The book of Genesis traces the origin of the Midianites to Abraham and Keturah, whom Genesis claims as Abraham’s wife after the death of Sarah.

According to the book of Exodus, Moses married a woman named Zipporah, who was the daughter of a Midianite priest.

During the time of the Judges, the Midianites were one of many groups that oppressed the Israelites.

Amalekites

The Amalekites were located directly south of Canaan, in the Negev area.

The book of Genesis claims that the Amalekites were also descendants of Esau.

The book of Exodus claims that the Amalekites were the very first nation to wage war against the Israelites during Israel’s journey to the Promised Land.



The land of Palestine is often referred to as Canaan in the Old Testament, as well “The Promised Land” or “the land flowing with milk and honey.”

“This land is located between the Mediterranean Sea, known biblically as ‘The Great Sea,’ and the desert.”

“It is relatively small in area, about 350 miles long from north to south and 60 miles wide from east to west. However, the biblical boundary “from Dan to Beersheba” was only 150 miles long.”

“This land shows extreme variations in physical features and climate.”


The Plain of Jezreel


“The Plain of Jezreel (also known as the valley of Jezreel) is about 50 miles long and connects the coastal region with the Jordan valley.”

“It is about 20 miles wide from north to south and separates the Galilee region from the hills of Samaria.”

“Important military and trade routes went through this region in ancient times.”

“Megiddo was an important fortified city located on the western edge of the Jezreel valley.”

The Jordan Valley

“The Jordan valley is part of a geological depression that extends from the foothills of Mount Hermon in the north to the Dead Sea in the south.”

The Jordan River

“The Jordan River originates in the north in the area of Dan and runs through this valley.”

“Between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea, the Jordan River takes a twisting and winding path.”


The Sea of Galilee


“The Sea of Galilee is a freshwater lake about 13 miles long and 8 miles wide. It is well known for plentiful fish and sudden storms.”

The “Sea of Galilee” is also referred to as “Chinereth,” the “Lake of Ginneseret,” and the “Lake/Sea of Tiberius.”

In the New Testament, the villages and towns around this lake are where Jesus invested much of his ministry before traveling south to Jerusalem where he was crucified.

The Dead Sea


Also known as the Salt Sea

50 miles long and 10 miles wide.

Lowest elevation on earth at 1,296 feet below sea level.

The fresh waters of the Jordan River run into the Dead Sea

High salt and mineral content (30-33%) because of constant water evaporation.




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Sources

Varughese, Alex, et al.  Discovering the Old TestamentKansas City: Beacon Hill Press, 2003.






Lecture Three: Reading Contextually - How Culture Shaped the Text



Literary Criticism


Source Criticism

“Source criticism aims to understand the various sources that contributed to the development of a biblical book.”

Form Criticism

“This critical approach to the study of the Bible focuses on the various literary types (genres) found in the biblical books.”

Redaction Criticism

“The aim of redaction criticism is to reconstruct the theological themes or motifs reflected in the present form of the text that may be different from its original theological purpose.”

Canonical Criticism

Similar to redaction Criticism

More concerned with the theological message of the various books in light of the message of the entire canon.

Documentary Hypothesis

The application of source criticism to the biblical texts was what “led to the argument by Julius Wellhausen in 1878 that the Pentateuch was composed of four different literary and theological documents.” This came to be known as the “documentary hypothesis.”

Wellhausen labeled these four separate documents as J, E, P, and D.

He believed that these sources originated at different times between the 9th–5th centuries B.C.

J = Yahwistic

The texts attributed to the “J–Source” are the texts prior to Exodus 3 which use the name “YHWH” to describe God.

“J–Source” or the “Yahwist” is believed to be the oldest of the four sources, possibly dating to around 950 B.C.

“J–Source” is believed to make up around half of the books of Genesis and Exodus, as well as portions of the book of Numbers.

Focuses mainly on the history of the ancestors of the southern tribe of Judah.

Use of elegant language

E = Elohistic

The texts attributed to the “E–Source” are the texts prior to Exodus 3 which use the generic name “Elohim” rather than the personal name of “Yahweh” to describe God.

Visions and dreams are common in “E–Source.”

“E–Source” makes up one-third of the book of Genesis, and half of the book of Exodus, as well as small portions of Numbers.

“E–Source” is slightly less elegant in its use of language than is “J-Source.”

“E–Source,” or the “Elohist,” is believed to have been composed around 850 B.C.

Focuses mainly on the history of the ancestors of the northern tribes of Israel.

P = Priestly

The “P–Source,” or the “Priestly” source is thought to have been written by the priests of Israel.

“P–Source” seems to place a greater emphasis on the roles and importance of the priests in Israel’s history than other sources.

“P–Source” is believed to be the most recent of the four sources of the Documentary Hypothesis, and its date of composition is thought to be somewhere between 600 – 400 B.C.

Contains a lot of lists and does not use elegant language at all.

D = Deuteronomic

The “D–Source” or the “Deuteronomist” makes up most of the book of Deuteronomy.

Sums up the rest of the Torah.

“D–Source” sets the stage for the rest of the “Deuteronomistic History” that makes up the books of Joshua, Judges, 1st Samuel, 2nd Samuel, 1st Kings, and 2nd Kings.

“D–source” is believed to have been composed sometime between 650 and 550 B.C.

Controversy over Authorship of the Pentateuch

The Pentateuch or Torah is traditionally attributed to Moses. It is referred to as “The Books of Moses.”

Did Moses actually write “The Books of Moses”? The Torah never actually mentions who the author or authors were.

Reasons people began to doubt Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch:

How could Moses have recorded his own death?

Why would Moses say of himself that he was the “most humble man on the face of the whole earth”?

The perspective in the stories is of one who has already entered the Promised Land, and Moses never did.

Two different accounts of the naming of Beersheba.

Three records of the giving of the Decalogue (10 Commandments) by Moses.

Two different cases of Joshua’s appointment in both Numbers 27:12-13 and Deuteronomy 31:14-15, 23.

Two different orders of events in the creation story in Genesis 1-3.

Two different locations for Benjamin’s birthplace in Genesis 35:16-19 and 35:23-26.

Two different accounts of human language and its origins in Genesis 11:1 and 10:5, 20, 31.

Differences with at what point in history was the name Yahweh first introduced (Ex. 6:3; Gen. 12:7).

This evidence led people to believe that the first five books of the Bible have at least four different sources, and many different authors from a variety of traditions. Moses was perhaps one of these authors, but he did not write the Torah (Pentateuch) completely on his own.

Major Literary Forms (Genres) in the Old Testament

Narratives

Law

Poetry

Prophecy

Wisdom

Apocalyptic

An Inductive Method of Studying an Old Testament Text…


“Evangelical scholars support an inductive approach to the study of the Bible that attempts to draw out the meaning of the text by making observations and conclusions about the details presented in the text. The inductive method presupposes a methodical and systematic study of the text.”

“Exegesis is the actual process of bringing the meaning out of a biblical text by its modern reader.”

Step 1: Investigate the book in which the passage is located.

What section of the Old Testament does the book belong to?

What is the relationship of the book to other Old Testament books?

What period in Israel’s history does the book belong to?

What are the major theological themes of the book?

What is the major literary type/form in the book?

What is the literary structure of the book?

Step 2: Identify the literary unit that is the focus of the exegesis.

What is the theme or central idea of this particular passage?

What are the boundaries of this passage?

Do the characters change?

Does the setting change?

Does the writing style change?

Step 3: Identify the literary form (genre) and its purpose or intention.

Is this a Narrative section? Does it seek to explain the origins of something?

Is this a Law section? Does it contain commands and instructions?

Is this a Prophecy section? Does it give hope? Encouragement? Warning? Threaten judgment?

Is this a Poetry section? Does it contain prayers or worship language?

Is this a Wisdom section? Does it contain moral and ethical sayings and guidelines for human conduct and relationships?

Is this an Apocalyptic section? Does it reveal future events of God’s sovereign rule in the world?

Step 4: Discover the immediate setting of the biblical passage.

Who was the author?

Who were the recipients?

When did the message of the book first originate?

What is the particular historical situation of that period (political leaders and developments of the time)?

Does the text contain references to particular cultural customs of that period?

What were the religious practices or beliefs of the people being addressed?

What spiritual need prompted the writing of the message contained in the text?

Step 5: Establish the relationship of the text to the passages that precede and follow the text.

Is there a common theme throughout the surrounding passages?

What is the literary style of the surrounding passages?

Is this passage a part of a chronological sequence of events?

Does this passage appear to stand alone from the passages by which it is surrounded?

Step 6: Identify the literary structure of the text.

How does the text begin?

Does the text address specific people?

Does the text introduce a speaker?

Does the speaker utilize subthemes to expand the main idea?

Are there transitions within the passage?

How does the text end?

Step 7: Study the grammatical structure, relationship of words and phrases, and meaning of words and phrases.

Is the word structure of the passage poetic?

Is it prose?

Does the passage contain euphemisms?

Are there word plays and puns in the original languages?

What is the meaning of the words in their original ancient settings?

Does the passage contain commands?

Does a particular word or phrase have two or more meanings?

Does the passage contain theologically-loaded words?

Step 8: Make conclusions about the theological truth or lessons that the writer of the text intended to communicate to his ancient listeners.

How does God speak or respond to human acts and needs in this passage?

Does God respond with warnings, calls to repentance, threats of judgment, words of instruction, hope, assurance, comfort, promise of help, promise of salvation, revelations of His majesty and glory, a miracle to create faith, guidance, counsel, or admonition?

How do the people in the passage react when God reveals himself and his words to them?

Do the people respond to God with praise, worship, obedience, submission, humility, gratitude, disobedience, rejection of God’s word, rebellion, or stubbornness?

Step 9: Relate the text and its theology to the overall message of the Bible.

Does the theology of the text before us deal with a particular culture or specific situations in the life of ancient Israel or the early Christian church?

Do we find parallel expressions elsewhere in the book in which the text is located?

Do we find parallel expressions elsewhere in other books of the Bible?

Is the theology of the text consistent with the overall theological teachings of the Bible?

Do we find clarifications or expansions of the theology of the text elsewhere in the Old Testament?

Does the New Testament interpret the Old Testament text or clarify it or modify it?

Step 10: Apply the message of the text to contemporary Christian life.

Does the message of the text have universal application?

Does it promote divine characteristics and attributes?

Does it promote God’s plan of redemption for all humanity?

Does it promote proper moral and ethical conduct?

Does this passage allow for all human beings to become truly the image of God?

Have you prayerfully sought divine guidance and the assistance of the Holy Spirit to illuminate your mind to discern the mystery of God’s revelation?

Difficulties in Cultural Translation



Group Activity: Cultural Interpretations

Divide people into groups and have them read Luke 15:11-32

Have each group give a brief summary of the parable.

In most American groups, those retelling the story (to their own shock) will leave out a very important fact - the famine!

However, when this experiment was done in Russia, almost everyone mentioned the famine in their brief summary.

Why did the Americans leave out such an important fact? Because famine is foreign to the experience of most Americans; whereas most Russians have experienced famine.

Our own cultural experience and upbringing is a major influence over how we approach and interpret every text of the Bible. As long as we are aware of this, we can begin to try to understand each text in its original context.




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Sources

Varughese, Alex, et al.  Discovering the Old TestamentKansas City: Beacon Hill Press, 2003.

Kugel, James L. How to Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture Then and Now.

Mellish, Dr. Kevin. Lecture on Deuteronomistic History, Olivet Nazarene University, 2011.

Lyons, Christopher. Thinking Hebrew for the Pomophobic. Fishing the Abyss, 2006.

Vander Laan, Dr. Ray. Seminar on The Land, the Culture, the Book.

Richards, Randolph; O'Brien, Brandon. Misreading Scripture with Western Eyes. IntervarsityPress.