Lecture Three: The Jewish Context of the New Testament

The Diverse World of First-Century Judaism

The Three Worlds of the New Testament Era

Three major forces largely shaped the world in which Christianity was born and developed:

The Scriptures and traditions of Judaism
The culture of Greece
The political power of Rome

The Book of Acts shows Jesus’ followers moving away from Palestine to urban centers of Greek culture.

Although first planted in Jewish soil, the Jesus movement experienced its most significant growth in the larger Greco-Roman world, the environment in which it eventually defined itself as distinct from its parent religion, Judaism.

The One God, Yahweh

The Jewishness of Jesus

Because both Jesus and his original disciples were children of Israel, born and raised in the Jewish faith, Jesus’ message is primarily explainable in terms of Jewish customs and beliefs.

The Shema

The Shema proclaims the oneness of Israel’s God, Yahweh, and the exclusive worship of Him.

Jesus cited the Shema as his people’s “greatest” commandment.

Jesus’ own name means “Yahweh is Salvation.”

In Jesus’ day, a bitter tension existed between belief in Yahweh’s might and His failure to intervene on His people’s behalf.

“Why did God allow Rome, viewed as an empire of idolaters, to exploit those who at least tried to worship Him?”

The Torah

In addition to its allegiance to a single God, a second cohesive force in Judaism was the Torah, divinely revealed instruction contained in the first five books of the Hebrew Bible.

While Genesis presents colorful tales of Israel’s ancestors – Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—and their descendants’ migration to Egypt, the other four books relate Israel’s escape from Egypt and the covenant it concluded with Yahweh at Mount Sinai.

Called the Mosaic Covenant because Moses acts as mediator in the formal agreement between God and Israel, it stipulates hundreds of laws, statutes, and ordinances that the Israelites must obey to ensure Yahweh’s favor.

Although the Ten Commandments (listed in Exod. 20 and Deut. 5) are the most famous part of the covenant requirements, the many other legal edicts regulating almost every aspect of Jewish daily life were considered equally important and binding.

The Divine Promises

Besides the covenant bond to Yahweh, manifest in the daily observance of Torah regulations, another major factor helping to unite the Jewish community was the series of promises that God made to Israel’s ancestors.

According to the Genesis promises, collectively known as the Abrahamic Covenant, Yahweh guaranteed Israel a high destiny among the international family of nations: It was to be a populous country, blessed by God’s presence in its midst and governed by a divinely appointed royal dynasty.

After Israel’s twelve tribes had been politically united under a single king, David (c. 1000–961 BCE), Yahweh further promised David that his royal heirs would possess Israel’s throne “forever.”

In the Davidic Covenant, Yahweh declared that he might punish individual Davidic kings for wrongdoing but that the dynasty itself would be “everlasting” (2 Sam. 7).

The Jerusalem Temple

According to Deuteronomy 12, Yahweh recognized only one site on earth as the place where the animal sacrifices required by the Torah were acceptable to him.

King Solomon, famous for his wisdom, wealth, and building projects, had first erected a monumental sanctuary on Zion’s hill in Jerusalem.

After the Babylonians destroyed Solomon’s magnificent sanctuary in 587 BCE a smaller building was constructed on the site and rededicated in about 515 BCE.

Extensively restored and enlarged by Herod the Great, this second Temple was commonly known in New Testament times as Herod’s Temple.

Jesus’ family repeatedly traveled to Jerusalem from Galilee, but many pious Jews made arduous pilgrimages to the Temple from distant parts of the Roman Empire.

First-Century Jewish Diversity

The Four Jewish Groups according to puppets...

Sadducess

Represented as among Jesus’ chief opponents, the Sadducees were typically members of the Jewish upper class, wealthy landowning aristocrats who largely controlled the priesthood and the Temple.

Pharisees

Many Pharisees were deeply learned in the Torah and skilled at its interpretation. Josephus states that the common people regarded them as the most authoritative interpreters of the Mosaic Law.

Unlike their rivals the Sadducees, the Pharisees accepted not only the written Law contained in the Mosaic Torah but also a parallel oral law.

Essenes

According to most scholars, a particularly rigorous group of Essenes inhabited Qumran, where they pursued a monastic way of life apparently renouncing marriage, holding all possessions in common, and unquestioningly obeying their priestly superiors.

The Qumran community may have been founded shortly after the Maccabean Revolt when Hasmonean rulers assumed the office of High Priest, a practice the Essenes abhorred as an illegal usurpation that polluted the Temple.

Withdrawn from the world in their isolated desert community, the Essenes patiently awaited the arrival of two Messiahs—a priestly Messiah descended from Aaron, Moses’ brother and Israel’s first High Priest, and a second “Messiah of Israel,” a leader descended from King David.

The only Jewish sect known to expect two such leaders, the Essenes may have influenced the author of the New Testament Book of Hebrews, which is unique in presenting the risen Christ as both a Davidic and a high priestly Messiah.

Essene interest in Melchizedek, a mysterious king-priest mentioned briefly in the books of Genesis and Psalms, is similarly reflected in Hebrews’ comparison of Christ to Melchizedek, the only canonical writing to make this connection.

Zealots

Known for their passionate commitment to Jewish religious and political freedom, the Zealots formed a party dedicated to evicting the Romans from Palestine. Opposition to the Roman occupation, which began in 63 BCE, flared repeatedly during the first century CE, climaxing in the Jewish War against Rome (66–73 CE).

Samaritans

Named for the capital city, Samaria, of the ancient northern kingdom of Israel, the Samaritans were a distinctive Jewish group who occupied the territory lying between Judea and Galilee.

Whereas Jews worshiped at the Jerusalem Temple on Mount Zion, Samaritans viewed Mount Gerizim, near the ancient Israelite sanctuary of Shechem, as God’s approved holy place (John 4:20).

When the Hasmonean king John Hyrcanus invaded Samaria in 108 BCE, however, he destroyed the Samaritan temple erected on Mount Gerizim.

For most observant Jews, the Samaritan branch of Hellenistic Judaism—which recognized only the Mosaic Torah, and not the Prophets or other biblical writings as binding Scripture - was little better than a Gentile cult.

The Messiah: First-Century Expectations

All of Israel’s Davidic kings were literally “messiahs [mashiah],” “anointed of God.” They reigned as Yahweh’s “sons,” adopted at the time of their consecration or coronation: “‘You [the Davidic ruler] are my son,’ [God] said; ‘this day I become your father’” (Ps. 2:7).

Because the prophets had envisioned these divinely adopted rulers as warrior-kings like David—God’s agent in establishing an earthly kingdom—the messianic leader was typically seen as fulfilling a military-political role.

His function was to demonstrate the omnipotence of Israel’s God by setting up a theocratic state whose righteous government would compel the Gentiles’ respect for both Yahweh and his chosen people (Isa. 11; Dan. 2:44).

Psalm of Solomon 17

The most striking description of Israel’s expected deliverer was written only five or six decades before Jesus’ birth.

Ascribed to Solomon, the progenitor of Israel’s wisdom tradition, a collection of prophetic poems known as the Psalms of Solomon describes a righteous king who would drive the hated foreigners (Roman occupational forces) from Jerusalem and establish a just sovereignty over both Gentiles and Jews.

Psalm of Solomon 17 is the first known work of Jewish literature to use the terms son of David and Lord Messiah (Christ), distinctive titles that New Testament writers apply to Jesus.

Although Psalm of Solomon 17 sees the Messiah as sinless and powerful, he is clearly a human rather than a supernatural figure, God’s agent but not a divine being.

His promised activities include gathering together “a holy people” who will be “children of their God,” cleansing Jerusalem (presumably including its Temple), and ruling compassionately over the Gentiles.

Although a Davidic heir, this “Lord Messiah” achieves his dominion without military conquest because he is “powerful in the holy spirit” and strengthened by “wisdom and understanding.”

This vision of a peaceful Messiah subduing opponents through “the word of his mouth [his teaching]” is much closer to that adopted by the Gospel authors than the traditional over the Gentiles.

Although a Davidic heir, this “Lord Messiah” achieves his dominion without military conquest because he is “powerful in the holy spirit” and strengthened by “wisdom and understanding.”

This vision of a peaceful Messiah subduing opponents through “the word of his mouth [his teaching]” is much closer to that adopted by the Gospel authors than the traditional expectation of a warrior-king like the historical David.

Jesus as Messiah

As presented in the Gospels, Jesus of Nazareth takes a view of the messianic role and the kingdom of God that was disappointing or perplexing to many.

Despite some modern commentators’ attempts to associate him with the Zealot or revolutionary party, Jesus (as portrayed by the Evangelists) does not present himself as a military or political savior of Israel.

As John’s Gospel concludes, his “kingdom does not belong to this world” (John 18:36).

For those living in the protracted interval between Jesus’ ascension to heaven and his return to earth, New Testament writers emphasize the spiritual significance of Jesus’ innovative messiahship.

Instead of coming to earth to conquer political enemies and forcibly establish a theocratic monarchy, Jesus is seen as having appeared primarily to conquer less tangible but more formidable foes—human sin, evil, and death.

After his sacrificial death, paying the ultimate penalty to redeem humankind, Jesus then ascends to the celestial throne room, standing at God’s “right hand” (a position symbolic of his unity with God) (Acts 8:55–56; cf. Rev. 1:11–20, etc.).

In thus being portrayed as God’s co-regent, an immortal being of cosmic stature, the ascended Jesus, ruling invisibly but eternally over human minds and hearts (Phil. 2:6–11), becomes infinitely more powerful than a Davidic Messiah.

In Christian reinterpretation, traditional expectations of a renewed Davidic kingdom are transformed into the concept of a heavenly messianic reign, one in which believers—joined by sacrament and spirit—can participate.

Messianic Claimants Before and After Jesus

In his accounts of peasant uprisings against the Romans or their Herodian puppets, the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus reports that several prominent rebels were also messianic pretenders (i.e., they assumed the function of Israel’s anointed kings).

Most of these popular kings appeared either during the turmoil following the death of Herod the Great (4 BCE) or during the greater upheaval of the Jewish War against Rome (66–73 CE).

Judas

After Herod’s death, a rebel named Judas, son of a brigand or terrorist named Hezekiah, led Galilee in a revolt against Roman occupational forces.

According to Josephus, this Judas was motivated by an ambition to achieve “royal rank” (Antiquities, 17:271–272).

Simon

Simon of Perea, the territory east of Galilee, similarly donned “the diadem,” symbol of kingly status, and plundered Herod’s palace in Jericho.

After leading a band of unruly followers, Simon was captured by the Romans and beheaded, a fate anticipating that of John the Baptist.

Athronges

A third would-be king, Athronges, resembled David in beginning his career as a shepherd, after which he also wore a royal diadem and, supported by his brothers and their armed followers, attacked both Roman and Herodian armies.

Roman retaliation against such popular uprisings was swift and severe: In 4 BCE, the Galilean town of Sepphoris, which had aided the rebels, was burned and its inhabitants sold into slavery.

Located only a few miles from Nazareth, Sepphoris was lavishly rebuilt during Jesus’ early years, a project on which it is remotely possible that he and his “carpenter [artisan]” father worked.

The Sicarii

The Sicarii (from the Latin sicarius, meaning “dagger”) were a group of urban terrorists and assassins.

Well organized, the Sicarii carried out a carefully plotted series of murders, eliminating priests and other Jerusalem authorities who favored compromise with Rome.

According to Josephus, one of the Sicarii leaders, Menachem—the son or grandson of the rebel Judas—assumed the trappings of kingship.

Menachem ostentatiously entered Jerusalem as the people’s king, a warrior-monarch in the tradition of David.

Another Sicarii pretender, Simon bar (son of) Giora, who also had messianic pretensions, led the largest and most powerful force resisting the Roman reconquest of Jerusalem.

Josephus states that, after Titus’s soldiers had captured and demolished the Temple, Simon, arrayed in royal robes, suddenly appeared among the ruins.

If he hoped for a last-minute divine intervention to vindicate his kingly aspirations, he was disappointed: The Romans took him as a prisoner to Rome, where he was executed.

Simon bar Kochba

The most famous messianic claimant was Simon bar Kochba, who led the second Jewish Revolt against Rome in 132–135 CE.

Akiba, a prominent rabbi, proclaimed that bar Kochba fulfilled the promise in Numbers 24:17 that “a star shall go forth from Jacob.”

While Rabbi Akiba and other supporters called Simon “bar Kochba,” which means “son of the star,” his detractors derisively labeled the revolutionary “bar Koziba”—“son of the lie.”

His attempt to liberate Judea and restore a theocratic state was doomed by Roman might, which again annihilated Jewish armies and brought a terrible end to Jewish political messianic hopes.

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Sources

Stephen L. Harris. The New Testament: A Student's Introduction (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, 2009.

Lecture Two: The Formation of the New Testament

Formation of the New Testament Canon

A process that spanned more than three centuries, the formation of the New Testament canon was long and complex. With the possible exception of Luke-Acts, each of the twenty-seven (eventually) canonical books originated separately and at first circulated independently of the others.

Although the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s letters were generally accepted by about AD 200, other books, such as James, Revelation, and 2nd Peter, were disputed well into the fourth century. Only gradually were these writings gathered together into a single volume with contents identical to those of today.

Canonization

The debate for canonization in the early church was based largely around the writings after the time of Jesus.

The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was already viewed as authoritative and therefore acceptable.

The process of canonization determined which books should be included beyond the OT.

Criteria for Canonization

The criteria that figured most prominently in the thinking of the church were:

Apostolicity
Catholicity
Orthodoxy
Traditional/Established Usage
Inspiration

Apostolicity

Was a book/letter written by an apostle?

What was the author’s connection to the apostles and thus to Christ?

“The concept ‘apostolic’… could connote, beyond direct apostolic authorship, authorship by followers of apostles, derivation from the general time of the apostles, or even simply an agreement of content with what the church took to be apostolic teaching.”

Catholicity

Was the document relevant to the universal Church?

Paul’s letters were disputed because they were specifically addressed to individual churches.

“What is at work in the use of this criterion is the church’s desire to eschew limited, private, and esoteric resources and to prefer broadly accessible and relevant documents.”

Orthodoxy

Did the document’s content agree with the faith/doctrine of the church?

This criteria was circular

The Synoptic Gospels and the writings of Paul were not put to this criterion because they were already widely accepted and used.

This criterion thus was applied to those texts which had questionable authority.

Traditional Usage

Was a document used in worship and teaching in the churches?

A retrospective approach primarily in the 3rd and 4th centuries.

Some writings which were used were excluded from the canon and others which were used more sparingly were canonized (James, 2 Peter, etc.).

Inspiration

The Church recognized the OT as being inspired by God, but at first it did not claim such for the Christian writings.

When the writings began being used commonly with the OT they began being viewed as inspired as well.

While the authority of the canon is argued on this point, it does not appear to have been a primary criteria of the church.

Transmitting the New Testament Texts

Although approximately 5,000 manuscripts containing all or part of the New Testament survive, only a few small fragments date back as early as the first half of the second century AD. The oldest extant manuscripts of a few individual books were composed about AD 200, but the earliest copies of the complete New Testament were not produced until the time of Constantine (c. AD 325).

Because none of the authors’ original documents exist (we have only several generations of copies) and no two of the surviving manuscript copies are precisely alike, it is extremely difficult for scholars to compile a reasonably reliable text of the Christian Greek Scriptures from which English translations can be made.

English Translations

Based on the pioneering labors of Wycliffe and Tyndale, the King James Bible (Authorized Version, AD 1611) became the most popular translation in the English-speaking world.

More recent translations, however, such as the New English Bible, are based on older manuscripts than were not available to the King James scholars and offer more exact approximations of the original Greek.

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Special Thanks

Mike Flowers
Tyler Brinkman

Lecture One: Introduction to the New Testament

The New Testament and the Hebrew Bible

“The New Testament is a collection of twenty-seven Christian documents, written in Greek and added as a supplement to a Greek edition of the Hebrew Bible known as the Septuagint.”

“Believers who accepted Jesus as the Jewish Messiah looked to the Jewish Scriptures – the only written religious authority for both Jews and early Christians – to find evidence supporting their convictions.”

“Believing themselves to be the people of the New Covenant, Christians eventually called their collection of Gospels, letters, and other sacred writings the New Testament.”

“Although the Hebrew Bible, which dealt with the older Mosaic Covenant, became known as the Old Testament, many scholars suggest that it would be more appropriate to call it the First Testament.”

Language and Literature of the New Testament

Koinē Greek

“The New Testament was written in the same kind of koinē (common) Greek as the Septuagint.”

“Koinē was the most widely spoken language of the early Christian era, and became the dominant tongue of the eastern Mediterranean region after the conquests of Alexander the Great (356-323 BC).”

“Although less elegant than classical Greek, koinē was then spoken by so large a percentage of the population that it communicated far more effectively than Hebrew or Latin.”

“Most of the books of the New Testament were composed between about AD 50 and 100, although a few were written as late as the mid-second century.”

“The oldest surviving Christian writings are the letters of Paul, a Greek-educated Jew from Tarsus, a prosperous city in an eastern province of the Roman Empire (now southeast Turkey).”

“Paul’s letters span between about AD 50 and 62.”

“Most of the remaining books, including the four Gospels and the Book of Acts, were written between about AD 66 and 100.”

“A few letters ascribed to some of Jesus’ most eminent disciples and known collectively as the catholic (general) epistles appeared several decades after the turn of the first century."

New Testament Literary Forms

“The New Testament contains several different genres of literature, although it has considerably less variety than the Hebrew Bible.”

“The contents are arranged not in the chronological order of their dates of composition, but according to their literary classification, beginning with the Gospels and ending with the Book of Revelation.”

Gospels

“The first four books are called Gospels, a term that translates the Greek word euangelion (good news). Designed to proclaim the “good news” about Jesus, the Gospels tell the story of Jesus’ ministry, death, and resurrection.”

An Account of the Early Church

“The second literary form in the New Testament is a narrative celebrating the deeds of a few early Christian leaders. Beginning with a description of Jesus’ ascension to heaven and ending with the apostle Paul’s preaching activity in Rome, Acts narrates a series of crucial episodes in Christianity’s early development, covering the years from about AD 30 to 60.”

Letters, or Epistles

“After the Gospel and narrative forms comes a collection of twenty-one letters, or epistles, all of which are ascribed to famous leaders of the early church.

The first set of letters is by Paul, the most influential of all Christian missionaries, and by Pauline disciples who later wrote in his name and spirit.

In addition, seven epistles (a more formal version of the letter) are attributed to other leaders associated with the original Jerusalem church, such as Peter, James, Jude, and John.”

An Apocalypse

“Like other apocalyptic literature, Revelation features visions of an unseen world inhabited by spirit creatures both good and evil.

It highlights the cosmic struggle between God and Satan, a conflict involving both heaven and earth that ultimately sees evil defeated, God’s kingdom triumphant, and the creation of a new earth and heaven.”

Canon of the New Testament

Gospels

Matthew

Mark

Luke

John

Church History

Acts

Epistles

Pauline

Romans

1st Corinthians

2nd Corinthians

Galatians

Ephesians

Philippians

Colossians

1st Thessalonians

2nd Thessalonians

Pastorals

1st Timothy

2nd Timothy

Titus

Philemon

General

Hebrews

James

1st Peter

2nd Peter

1st John

2nd John

3rd John

Jude

Apocalypse

Revelation

The Canon of the New Testament

The Story of Christ and His Church…

Major events of the New Testament…

Caesar Augustus establishes civil order throughout the Roman Empire (“Pax Romana”)

Birth of Jesus

Death of King Herod the Great

Tiberius, stepson of Augustus, becomes ruler of Rome

Pontius Pilate appointed Roman prefect (governor) over Judea

Jesus’ public ministry

Execution of Jesus

Resurrection of Jesus

Giving of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost

Jerusalem Church established

Conversion of Saul of Tarsus

Paul’s missionary journeys to the Gentiles

Apostle James executed

The Great Fire of Rome and Nero’s persecution of the Christians

Gospel of Mark is written

Jewish zealots rebel against Roman occupation, Jerusalem and its Temple destroyed by Rome

Pauline letters and Synoptic Gospels are published

Gospel of John written

John of Patmos writes Book of Revelation

General epistles written

Bar Kochba rebellion against Rome is crushed by Emperor Hadrian

2nd Peter is written

Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria publishes the set standard of 27 New Testament books

Other Early Christian Literature

Works formerly appearing in some New Testament lists:

The Epistle of Barnabas (attributed to Paul’s Jewish-Christian mentor)

The Didache (supposedly a summary of the Twelve Apostles’ teachings on the opposing ways leading to life or death)

1st Clement (a letter by the third bishop of Rome to the Corinthians)

Apocalypse of Peter (visions of heaven and hell ascribed to Peter)

The Shepherd of Hermas (a mystical apocalyptic work)

Scholarly Approaches to the New Testament

“It is essential to read carefully in order to perceive what a text actually says (as opposed to what one may have been told about it elsewhere) and to compare it to similar works written at approximately the same time and under the same cultural influences.

Comparative study of the Gospels reveals much about their individual authors’ distinctive theological concerns, helping to explain reasons for both similarities and differences in their accounts.”

“During the past two centuries, an international community of scholars – Jewish, Catholic, Protestant, and others – has developed innovative methods to illuminate the nature and growth of biblical documents.

This cosmopolitan body of scholars, historians, textual experts, literary critics, linguists, anthropologists, sociologists, and theologians includes thousands of university faculty, clergy, seminary instructors, and academic researchers.

Collectively, their efforts have provided us with an increasingly precise and well-documented study of the New Testament literature and the environment out of which it grew.”

“Many scholars believe that the scriptures…were composed to express authentic human experiences of divine power – represented by such classic moments as Moses encountering God at a burning bush on the slopes of Mount Sinai, Jesus hearing a heavenly voice after his baptism at the Jordan River, and Paul beholding the glorified Christ on the road to Damascus.

These unique religious experiences, which seem to transcend the ordinary limits of human life, if they are to be preserved for others, must be articulated in human language that is ill equipped to express unearthly realities.

Writing of Jesus’ apparently supernatural abilities and personal vision of God’s kingdom, the New Testament authors inevitably depicted them in terms of the prevailing culture, using then-current images and metaphors to approximate the inexpressible.

Although scholarship cannot investigate the world of the spirit or the elusive dimension of religious transcendence the biblical authors explore, it offers enormous help in examining the means – cultural, social, historical, and literary – by which ancient writers conveyed these phenomena to us.”

The New Testament read from different social perspectives

“In recent years, scholars have become increasingly aware that the meaning of any book – including biblical texts – is to a large extent dependent on the reader’s individual experience and viewpoint.”

“In the United States, this is particularly true when readers belong to social groups such as ethnic or other minorities that the dominant culture may commonly undervalue or otherwise marginalize.”

“Viewing New Testament passages from a specific social location – such as the African American, Hispanic American, Asian American, Native American, or feminist community – is likely to give these stories a meaning that is distinctly different from interpretations traditionally promoted by society’s male Caucasian leadership.” 

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Sources

Stephen L. Harris. The New Testament: A Student's Introduction (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, 2009.

Lecture Nine: The Persian Period - Last of the Prophets

Haggai

A Call to Build the House of the Lord (1:1-15)

Haggai lived during the time of Governor Zerubbabel and the high priest Joshua.

He told them that even though the people were saying that it was not a good time to build the Temple, they apparently had time to build nice houses for themselves.

Haggai convinced them that they should restart the Temple project.

The Promised Glory of the New House (1:15–2:9)

The older generation was discouraged because they remembered how nice Solomon’s Temple was and they didn’t think they could ever build another Temple as good as that one.

“‘The glory of this present house will be greater than the glory of the former house,’ says the Lord Almighty. ‘And in this place I will grant peace,’ declares the Lord Almighty.”

Blessings for a Defiled People (2:10-19)

Haggai brought God’s message to the priests, saying that the food shortage in the land which had come as a result of the peoples’ sin would end, and God instead planned to bless His people.

Zerubbabel the Lord’s Signet Ring (2:2-23)

Haggai brought God’s message to Zerubbabel, the governor of Judah at that time, saying that God planned to overthrow the current world powers, and that he had chosen Zerubbabel to be his chosen “signet ring” to lead his people.

Zechariah

The first major section of the book of Zechariah deals with the restoration of God’s people to the land.

The rest of the book is made up of an extended section that uses apocalyptic imagery to describe the future Messianic Age.

Like Haggai, Zechariah lived during the time of Zerubbabel’s governorship over Judah, the high priesthood of Joshua, and the reign of Darius the Great over Persia.

Like Haggai, Zechariah called on the people to rebuild the Temple.

Call to Repentance (1:1-6)

The book opens by saying that the word of the LORD came to the prophet Zechariah during the second year of the reign of King Darius the Great.

“Therefore tell the people: This is what the Lord Almighty says: ‘Return to me,’ declares the Lord Almighty, ‘and I will return to you,’ says the Lord Almighty. Do not be like your ancestors, to whom the earlier prophets proclaimed: This is what the Lord Almighty says: ‘Turn from your evil ways and your evil practices.’ But they would not listen or pay attention to me, declares the Lord.”

“Then they repented and said, ‘The Lord Almighty has done to us what our ways and practices deserve, just as he determined to do.’”

Eight Visions (1:7–6:8)

First Vision (1:7-17)

Sees angel standing among Myrtle trees.

Host of horsemen patrol the earth, report all is quiet

Angel asks God how much longer He’s going to withhold mercy from Jerusalem and Judah

God promises to restore His people and judge their oppressors

Second Vision (1:18-21)

Sees four horns and four craftsmen.

Four horns = nations that had scattered God’s people and destroyed their dignity

Four craftsmen = God’s forces against those nations

He would scatter them as they had scattered His people.

Third Vision (2:1-13)

Sees a man measuring Jerusalem.

God is marking off Jerusalem as His own.

He will dwell there, provide protection

Warns Judah’s enemies of future slavery, offers to join repentant nation to Himself

Fourth Vision (3:1-10)

Sees High Priest Joshua

Joshua is in filthy garments

Satan stands ready to point out sin of Joshua and his predecessors

God rebukes Satan

Joshua given clean new clothes

God’s servant, the “Branch”

Joshua marks beginning of a new work

The Branch will bring in a new age

“I will remove the sin of this land in a single day.”

Fifth Vision (4:1-14)

Sees gold lampstand and two olive trees

Angel explains:

The gold lampstand = the Spirit of the LORD whose seven eyes go throughout all the earth, and whose word approves of the work of Zerubbabel in rebuilding the Temple.

The two olive trees = “the two who are anointed to serve the Lord of all the earth”

Sixth Vision (5:1-4)

Sees a flying scroll

Very large, has writing on both sides

Represents the curse and God’s convicting word

Seventh Vision (5:5-11)

Sees a woman

representing wickedness

Angel shoves her in a large basket,

seals lid with lead

Women with wings carry basket away to Babylon

Message = God will remove His people’s sin

Eighth Vision (6:1-8)

Sees four chariots emerging from between two bronze mountains

The chariots = spirits of heaven who patrol the earth at God’s command

God is sovereign over all the nations.

The spirits report that God’s Spirit now has rest in the north.

God had dealt with His enemies, and could now continue to restore His people.

A Symbolic Act (6:9-15)

A Crown for Joshua (6:9-15)

God told Zechariah to make a crown and place it on the head of Joshua, the high priest.

God explained that His servant, “the Branch,” would build the Temple, rule as a priest on his throne, and bring peace between the offices of king and priest.

Some scholars suggest the text may have originally hinted at Zerubbabel and Joshua’s unity of purpose – political and spiritual leadership working together in harmony.

Ultimately, the text points to Jesus, in whom the offices of king and priest find perfect unity.

Jesus built God’s Temple, the Church.

Jesus intercedes for believers as our great High Priest.

Jesus is also the successor to David’s throne, and will rule forever as King of kings.

Joy of the Messianic Age (7:1–8:23)

Justice and Mercy, Not Fasting (7:1-14)

Bethel delegation’s question:

Should we keep fasting on special days to remember Jerusalem’s destruction?

God’s answer:

Remember the past to avoid following the ways of your ancestors who were exiled.

Fasting lets you humble yourself before God and seek righteousness, but fasting to feel sorry for yourself is a waste of time.

The Lord Promises to Bless Jerusalem (8:1-23)

God will gather His people and reestablish His name in Jerusalem.

He will restore His relationship with His children, and bring lasting peace and blessing.

Israel can become a light to other nations

Other peoples will see God’s blessing and seek it for themselves.

Triumph of the Messianic Age (9:1–14:21)

Judgment on Israel’s Enemies (9:1-8)

God will remove Israel’s neighboring enemies and form a remnant from among them.

The Coming of Zion’s King (9:9-13)

“Rejoice greatly, Daughter Zion!
Shout, Daughter Jerusalem!
See, your king comes to you,
righteous and victorious,
lowly and riding on a donkey,
on a colt, the foal of a donkey.
I will take away the chariots from Ephraim
and the warhorses from Jerusalem,
and the battle bow will be broken.
He will proclaim peace to the nations.
His rule will extend from sea to sea
and from the River to the ends of the earth.”






The Lord Will Appear (9:14-17)

“Then the Lord will appear over them;
his arrow will flash like lightning.
The Sovereign Lord will sound the trumpet;
he will march in the storms of the south,
and the Lord Almighty will shield them.”




The Shepherds (10:1–11:17)

Part of God’s restoration of his people included removing their bad leaders.

Zechariah described the leaders as three worthless shepherds who cared little for their sheep.

At God’s command, Zechariah assumed leadership, but the people rejected his good leadership.

The prophet warned the people another evil leader would come before God’s ultimate leader.

Scholars have tried to identify the three shepherds Zechariah mentioned, as well as the future evil shepherd.

Some suggest the shepherds were priests of Zechariah’s day.

Some say they were political leaders.

Some say they represent prophets, priests, and rulers.

“Then I took my staff called Favor and broke it, revoking the covenant I had made with all the nations. It was revoked on that day, and so the oppressed of the flock who were watching me knew it was the word of the Lord.”

“I told them, ‘If you think it best, give me my pay; but if not, keep it.’ So they paid me thirty pieces of silver.”

“And the Lord said to me, ‘Throw it to the potter’—the handsome price at which they valued me! So I took the thirty pieces of silver and threw them to the potter at the house of the Lord.”

“Then I broke my second staff called Union, breaking the family bond between Judah and Israel.”

Jerusalem’s Enemies to Be Destroyed (12:1-9)

God will bring victory in His coming Kingdom.

Jerusalem will be God’s instrument, but the triumph will be His.

He will destroy all the nations that gather against His people.

Mourning for the One They Pierced (12:10-14)

The nation will embrace their God.

As God pours out His Spirit, His people will look upon one whom they have pierced, and mourn for him as one would mourn for the death of an only son.

John the apostle connected this prophecy with Jesus’ crucifixion.

Cleansing From Sin (13:1-6)

“On that day a fountain will be opened to the house of David and the inhabitants of Jerusalem, to cleanse them from sin and impurity.”

God’s shepherd will be struck down.

The Shepherd Struck, the Sheep Scattered (13:7-9)

“Strike the shepherd, and the sheep will be scattered.”

Through this process, God would prepare a special remnant for His purposes.

At his last meal with his disciples, Jesus warned them about his coming arrest, and told them they would fulfill this prophetic word, and they did.

The Lord Comes and Reigns (14:1-21)

Zechariah foretold a day when all nations will gather themselves against Jerusalem.

At the last minute, God will intervene, deliver His people, and establish His everlasting Kingdom.

“Then the Lord will go out and fight against those nations, as he fights on a day of battle. On that day his feet will stand on the Mount of Olives, east of Jerusalem, and the Mount of Olives will be split in two from east to west, forming a great valley, with half of the mountain moving north and half moving south.”

“On that day there will be neither sunlight nor cold, frosty darkness. It will be a unique day—a day known only to the Lord—with no distinction between day and night. When evening comes, there will be light.”

“On that day living water will flow out from Jerusalem, half of it east to the Dead Sea and half of it west to the Mediterranean Sea, in summer and in winter.”

“This is the plague with which the Lord will strike all the nations that fought against Jerusalem: Their flesh will rot while they are still standing on their feet, their eyes will rot in their sockets, and their tongues will rot in their mouths. On that day people will be stricken by the Lord with great panic. They will seize each other by the hand and attack one another.”

“Then the survivors from all the nations that have attacked Jerusalem will go up year after year to worship the King, the Lord Almighty, and to celebrate the Festival of Tabernacles. If any of the peoples of the earth do not go up to Jerusalem to worship the King, the Lord Almighty, they will have no rain.”

“On that day holy to the Lord will be inscribed on the bells of the horses, and the cooking pots in the Lord’s house will be like the sacred bowls in front of the altar.”

When Zechariah wrote about the Messiah’s coming, he did not distinguish sharply between his first and second comings.

For him, as with many other prophets, the Messiah’s coming Kingdom was one glorious future.

Malachi

Name means “my messenger”

He disputed with God’s people in post-exilic Jerusalem because they had grown lax in their faith.

This book appears to be presented as a lovers’ quarrel between God and His people.

Dispute over God’s Love (1:2-5)

God: I love you.

People: Oh, really? Prove it!

God: I rebuilt you, didn’t I? Take a look at your neighbor. I didn’t rebuild Edom. Remember Jacob and Esau? Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated.

Dispute over Poor Spiritual Leadership (1:6–2:9)

Breaking Covenant Through Blemished Sacrifices (1:6-14)

God: Why don’t you respect me?

People: When have we ever not shown you proper respect?

God: Is it respectful to offer me blind, lame, and diseased sheep for sacrifices? Your own governor wouldn’t accept such cheap gifts, so why should I? I deserve an apology.

Additional Warning to the Priests (2:1-9)

God: If you don’t start listening to me, I am going to curse your blessings. I’ll wipe the filth from the sacrifices you gave me all over your faces! You children of Levi ought to know better than to lead my people astray! My covenant was about life, but you’re killing it!

Dispute over Breaking Covenant (2:10–3:12)

Breaking Covenant Through Divorce (2:10-16)

Malachi accuses the people:

Isn’t God the father of us all? Why do we break his covenant?

You men have broken your covenant with God by marrying women who worship other gods!

People: Why doesn’t God listen to us any more?

Malachi: Because you cheated on the wife of your youth!

God: You hated your wife, and you divorced her. You were supposed to protect her, but instead you were violent with her! So watch out!

Breaking Covenant Through Injustice (2:17–3:5)

Malachi: God is worn out from listening to you.

People: What did we say?

Malachi: You said that God loves it when people do evil deeds, and you acted like he doesn’t care about justice!

God: I will send my messenger ahead of me to prepare for my coming. I will come suddenly; my messenger will come – the one you supposedly look forward to. My messenger will burn the evil right out of you, and I will come and put you on trial!

Breaking Covenant by Withholding Tithes (3:6-12)

God: Return to me and I will return to you.

People: How can we return?

God: Stop robbing me! Do you really think a mortal can rob God?

People: How are we robbing you?

God: In tithes and offerings!

Dispute over Futile Worship (3:13–4:6)

Israel Speaks Arrogantly Against God (3:13-15)

God: You spoke arrogantly to me.

People: What did we say?

God: You said that it’s pointless to serve me, and you said that I have no understanding of justice.

The Faithful Remnant (3:16-18)

Malachi says:

Then those who feared the Lord talked with each other, and the Lord listened and heard. A scroll of remembrance was written in his presence concerning those who feared the Lord and honored his name.

Judgment and Covenant Renewal (4:1-6)

God says:

“‘Surely the day is coming; it will burn like a furnace. All the arrogant and every evildoer will be stubble, and the day that is coming will set them on fire,’ says the Lord Almighty. ‘Not a root or a branch will be left to them. But for you who revere my name, the sun of righteousness will rise with healing in its rays. And you will go out and frolic like well-fed calves. Then you will trample on the wicked; they will be ashes under the soles of your feet on the day when I act,’ says the Lord Almighty.”

“Remember the law of my servant Moses, the decrees and laws I gave him at Horeb for all Israel.”

“See, I will send the prophet Elijah to you before that great and dreadful day of the Lord comes. He will turn the hearts of the parents to their children, and the hearts of the children to their parents; or else I will come and strike the land with total destruction.”