The Making of the Old Testament
The stories found in the book of Genesis were likely a “part of Israel’s faith traditions during the days of Moses” (DOT 27).
Moses lived sometime around the 13th century B.C. This time period is known as the Mosaic period and is when the events of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy took place.
These stories were likely a part of Israel’s “oral tradition” long before they were written down.
The “Oral Tradition” refers to “orally transmitted stories” that were passed down by word-of-mouth “from one generation to another” (DOT 28).
It is possible that many of these stories existed in spoken-form for three or more centuries before they were finally written down completely.
“We assume that most of the Old Testament books received their final form between 800 B.C. and 400 B.C.” (DOT 28).
None of the original biblical manuscripts are in existence today.
The original manuscripts are called “autographs.”
What exists today is the result of many scribes who carefully copied the texts of existing manuscripts over and over throughout the years.
Scholars believe that after the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 B.C., many Jewish communities continued to copy and preserve the biblical texts from locations in Babylon and Egypt.
The scribes who copied the Bible before the Christian era used only consonants and no vowels when writing down words. Also, they provided no breaks between words, but ran every word together. This sometimes caused confusion for translators.
Modern example:
“I FND A BRD”
I FND
–I found?
–I find?
–I fanned?
–I fond?
–I phoned?
–I fiend?
–I fund?
–I fend?
–I Fondue?
A BRD
–A bird?
–A bread?
–A board?
–A bard?
–A bride?
–A buried?
–A beard?
–A braid?
–A by-road?
–Abroad?
I FND A BRD
–I found a bird?
–I find a bride?
–I fined a bard?
–I phoned abroad?
–I fanned a beard?
After the Christian era began, scribes began using vowels and added spaces between words.
In the 3rd century A.D. the scribes who copied the Bible stopped writing on scrolls and began to write in the pages of books.
Timeline of Canonization
By 400 B.C. the canon included mainly the books of the Law or the Torah, the first five books of the Bible.
Scholars believe that the priest Ezra is likely partially responsible for the canonization of these first five books. Ezra influenced Jewish life in the fifth century B.C.
“Judaism accepted the Former and Latter Prophets as canon around 200 B.C.” (DOT 30).
Portions of the New Testament written in the first century A.D. refer to sections of The Law, The Prophets, and The Psalms.
The “official acceptance of the Kethubim (or The Writings) as canon took place during the council of Jamnia around A.D. 95. During this council, the rabbis gave their official endorsement to all the 39 Old Testament books” (DOT 30).
The Dead Sea Scrolls
These are the oldest Hebrew manuscripts we have today and they come from a period around 100 B.C.
These manuscripts were found in the Qumran caves of Palestine near the Dead Sea in 1947 by a young shepherd boy.
Many additional ancient scrolls were found in these caves between 1947 and 1956.
Contents of the Dead Sea Scrolls:
–Two copies of the book of Isaiah (one in complete form)
–A commentary on the book of Habakkuk.
–A number of psalms
–Fragments of all of the books of the Old testament, except for Esther.
–A large number of additional non-biblical materials
The Masoretic Text
From A.D. 500 – A.D. 900, a family of scribes from Tiberius became the predominant copyists of biblical manuscripts.
This family contributed many marginal notes (masora) to the biblical texts for future generations and they came to be known as the Masoretes.
The culminating work of this family is known as the Masoretic Text and is commonly used by Bible translators today.
Translation of the Bible
The Bible in Aramaic
By around the 6th century B.C. people began to speak in Aramaic instead of in Hebrew.
People couldn’t understand their Hebrew Scriptures.
Oral paraphrases were presented to the people during worship.
Eventually these oral paraphrases were written down and came to be known as The Targums.
The Bible in Greek
The very first translation of a portion of the Hebrew Bible into another language was around 250 B.C. into the Greek language.
This translation was made for the benefit of the Greek-speaking Jews who lived in Alexandria, Egypt at the time.
“This translation is known as the Septuagint or LXX, which refers to the tradition that 70 or 72 Jewish elders translated it.”
These were the Scriptures used by the early Church.
The Apocrypha
The following 15 works make up the traditional list of the apocryphal books:
–1st Esdras
–2nd Esdras
–The Prayer of Manasseh (added to 2nd Chronicles)
–Wisdom of Solomon
–Ecclesiasticus (a.k.a. Sirach)
–Judith
–Tobit
–Additions to Esther
–Baruch
–Epistle of Jeremiah (added to Baruch)
–The Song of the Three Children (added to Daniel)
–Susanna (added to Daniel)
–Bel and the Dragon (added to Daniel)
–1st Maccabees
–2nd Maccabees
Brief summaries of Apocryphal works put together by your professor for your interest and entertainment…
1st Esdras
This book is about the return of the exiles from Babylon to Jerusalem and includes the book of Ezra within it. It presents the material in a slightly different order than the books of Ezra and Nehemiah and also includes the last two chapters of 2nd Chronicles.
2nd Esdras
This book is an apocalyptic work that was permanently dropped from the Jewish canon early on. It is sometimes referred to as the “Apocalypse of Ezra.”
The Prayer of Manasseh
This short work is supposedly a prayer prayed by King Manasseh after he was led away into captivity. It is often added to the end of 2nd Chronicles and not treated as a book on its own.
Wisdom of Solomon
This is a book of wise sayings attributed to the tradition of Solomon. The book also includes a Passover liturgy at the end recounting God’s deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt.
Ecclesiasticus/Sirach
This is a book of ethical teachings written by a man named Jesus ben Sirach, and is similar to Proverbs and Ecclesiastes in form.
Judith
This is an historical novel similar to Esther in the way it is presented. Judith is a feminine representation of the nation of Judah. In the story, Judith is a beautiful widow who is upset that her people no longer follow Mosaic Law. She earns the trust of the enemy general and then cuts off his head one night and saves her people.
Tobit
This story is about a righteous Israelite living in Nineveh named Tobit who goes blind after a bird poops in his eyes. This causes him marriage problems and he wants to die. Meanwhile, a woman named Sarah living in Media also wishes to die after her first seven husbands are killed on their wedding night by the demon of lust before the marriage can be consummated. God sends Raphael the angel to heal Tobit and free Sarah from the demon.
Additions to Esther
These six additional chapters provide extra details to the story, including dreams, prayers, and decrees, and are interwoven throughout the book of Esther.
Baruch
This book is a short sermon written by a man named Baruch who was the prophet Jeremiah’s scribe.
Epistle of Jeremiah
This letter is attributed to Jeremiah for the people about to be carried into exile. It is often included as the sixth chapter of Baruch.
The Song of the Three Children
This is a long prayer and song of praise that is often added to the end of Daniel chapter 3 after the story of the fiery furnace.
Susanna
This story is about some peeping-toms who try to sexually assault a righteous woman named Susanna, but when it doesn’t work out they accuse her of adultery and she is sentenced to death. Daniel shows up and saves the day with his detective skills. It is sometimes included as the 13th chapter of Daniel.
Bel and the Dragon
Three different stories are told in this work. The first story is about the idol Bel. Daniel’s detective work proves that Bel is a false god after Daniel discovers a secret passageway in the temple. The second story is about a dragon that the people worshiped. Daniel feeds the dragon an interesting concoction which causes the dragon’s stomach to explode. In the third story, the people are upset that Daniel killed the dragon that they worshiped so they throw him in the lions’ den for a week. This final story is an alternate version the story of Daniel in the Lions’ Den and includes an appearance of the prophet Habakkuk who appears in the den to give Daniel food and then disappears again.
1st Maccabees
The book is a history of the Jews during the time after Alexander the Great conquered the world. It deals with the Jewish war for independence led by the Maccabean brothers. This book also recounts the origins of the festival of Hanukkah.
2nd Maccabees
This book is a revised version of 1st Maccabees and includes sections on offering prayers for people who have died as well as unique manuscripts on the resurrection of the dead.
The Bible in Latin
“In the fourth century A.D., Bishop Jerome began the task of translating the Bible into Latin, using existing Latin versions and the Septuagint, which also included the Apocrypha.”
“During the sixth and seventh centuries, the church fathers gave priority to Jerome’s work over other existing Latin versions.”
Jerome’s translation eventually became known as the Vulgate, from the Latin word vulgata, which means ‘common,’ because the Bible could now be read in the common language of the people at the time.
“Gradually, the Latin Vulgate became the official Bible of Western Europe during the Middle Ages.”
The Bible in English
John Wycliffe
“John Wycliffe (1330-84) made the first systematic attempt to translate the Bible from the Latin into the English language.”
Wycliffe was fighting against church corruption and wanted the people to be able to read the Bible in their own common language, English.
“His complete New Testament appeared in 1380.”
“The church authorities condemned Wycliffe’s writings and ordered his bones to be dug out of his grave and burned.”
William Tyndale
“William Tyndale (1494-1536) was the first scholar to translate a portion of the Bible into English from the original languages.”
Tyndale published his first edition of the New Testament in 1526 while living in Germany. This was the first printed edition of the English Bible.
“The church authorities condemned Tyndale’s work, charged him with heresy, and in 1536 he was condemned to death.”
Other English Bible translations of the 16th century, according to your textbook…
“Miles Coverdale, an associate of Tyndale, published the first complete Bible in English in 1535.”
“John Rogers, under the pen name Thomas Matthew, published Matthew’s Bible in 1537.”
“Sir Thomas Cromwell, secretary to King Henry VIII, commissioned the production of the Great Bible in 1539, which was the first authorized English version.”
“The Geneva Bible, produced in 1560, was the first English Bible to use numbered verses.”
“In 1568, the Bishop’s Bible appeared as a revision of the Great Bible.”
The King James Version
“In 1604 King James I commissioned a translation of the whole Bible into English, which would stay as close as it could to the original languages, to be used in all churches of England during worship.”
“About 54 scholars worked in six different groups to create this translation. The translation work was started in 1607 and was completed in 1611.”
“The New Testament portion of this new version was mostly an adaptation of Tyndale’s work.”
“The King James Version remained as the most popular Bible in English for nearly two and a half centuries since its original publication.”
Modern Translations of the Bible
Formal Equivalence
A Formal Equivalence translation of the Bible is a word-for-word, literal, translation that preserves as much as possible the original word order and sentence structure.
Example:
New American Standard Bible (NASB)
Dynamic Equivalence
“A Dynamic Equivalence translation of the Bible is a though-for-thought translation, which requires the use of modern idioms and thought forms to convey the message most authentically and accurately to the modern readers.”
Examples of translations that use both word-for word and thought-for-thought methods of interpretation:
New International Version (NIV)
New Revised Standard Version (NRSV)
New King James Version (NKJV)
The Task of Biblical Interpretation
“Hermeneutics refers to the rules and principles that govern the practice of interpretation.”
“Biblical interpretation (biblical hermeneutics) is necessary because of the distance that separates the modern reader from the authors and the original recipients of the Bible. This is a distance not only of time but also language, thought forms, culture, and geography.”
“We need to journey into the ancient world and understand the linguistic, cultural, and geographical context in which God first revealed himself through his words and actions.”
Ancient Jewish Interpretation
The Targum
The Targum is the oldest example we have of the ancient Jews interpreting the Bible.
The Targum was based on oral paraphrases of the Hebrew Scriptures into Aramaic, but also contained commentary on the texts.
The Essenes
The Essenes were a radical Jewish sect who lived just before the beginning of the Christian era.
“The Essenes followed an interpreted method known as pesher, in which the interpreter may suggest a change in the text or introduce an alternate reading to support a particular interpretation”
“The Essenes related many of the Old Testament prophecies to various contemporary events, including their own history.”
They used the biblical texts to support their claim that they were the only faithful Israelites left in the world, and that God would use them as the remnant that would usher in the end of history and the establishment of God’s kingdom on the earth.
The Rabbis
The Mishna was the written work of the oral teachings of the great rabbis of early Judaism.
The Talmud was a commentary on the Mishna by later rabbis.
“Rabbis often applied to the text its literal meaning or the plain sense of the text.”
“Rabbis also followed midrash, the practice of uncovering the meaning hidden in the text by the use of various techniques including atomizing the text into words and phrases and cross-referencing the text without regard for its context.”
The New Testament refers to Jesus as a rabbi.
Christian Interpretation – First 1,800 Years
New Testament writers used…
Literal Interpretation
God literally fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies through Jesus.
Utilized contemporary Jewish methods, such as midrash and pesher.
Typology
“Typology assumes that certain Old Testament events, persons, and religious concepts foreshadowed the realities presented in the New Testament.”
Allegory
“The allegorical method assumes that the text has a spiritual meaning underneath the literal details and that the spiritual meaning is more important than the literal meaning of the text."
Example of Typological Interpretation
Isaac as a Type or Foreshadowing of Christ
Isaac (Genesis 22)
Only son of promise (v. 2)
To be sacrificed in Moriah (later became Jerusalem) (v. 2)
Considered dead by father for three days (v. 4)
Carried wood for his own sacrifice (v. 6)
Submitted willingly to father (vv. 6, 8)
Raised from altar, his life spared by the power of God
Jesus
Only begotten of Father (John 3:16)
Sacrificed in Jerusalem (Luke 18:31-33)
Dead for three days (1 Cor. 15:3-4)
Bore his own cross (John 19:17-18)
Submitted willingly to Father (Matt. 26:39)
Raised from the dead by the power of God (Rom. 6:4)
“And Abraham, looking about him, saw a ram caught by the horns in a bush. We said before that Isaac is a type of Christ. Yet this also seems true of the ram. To understand how both are figures of Christ–Isaac who was not slain and the ram who was–is well worth our inquiry.”
~~ Origen, Homily on Genesis 22
Example of Allegorical Interpretation
Parable of the Good Samaritan
Jesus said: “A man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, when he was attacked by robbers. They stripped him of his clothes, beat him and went away, leaving him half dead. A priest happened to be going down the same road, and when he saw the man, he passed by on the other side. So too, a Levite, when he came to the place and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a Samaritan, as he traveled, came where the man was; and when he saw him, he took pity on him. He went to him and bandaged his wounds, pouring on oil and wine. Then he put the man on his own donkey, brought him to an inn and took care of him. The next day he took out two denarii and gave them to the innkeeper. ‘Look after him,’ he said, ‘and when I return, I will reimburse you for any extra expense you may have.’”
~~ Luke 10: 30-35 (NIV)
Origen's Allegorical Approach
“The man who was going down is Adam. Jerusalem is paradise, and Jericho is the world. The robbers are hostile powers. The priest is the Law, the Levite is the prophets, and the Samaritan is Christ. The wounds are disobedience, the beast is the Lord’s body, the [inn], which accepts all who wish to enter, is the Church. … The manager of the [inn] is the head of the Church, to whom its care has been entrusted. And the fact that the Samaritan promises he will return represents the Savior’s second coming.”
~~ Origen, Homily 34.3
The Patristic period
A.D. 100 – 590
The church fathers utilized both typological and allegorical methods of interpretations.
Christocentric in nature.
Apologetics were popular.
The Middle Ages
A.D. 500 – 1500
Emphasis on tradition.
Monks during this time also practiced the literal method of interpretation in the form of historical studies of the text. This method was later applied in universities.
The Reformation
A.D. 1500 – 1650
Emphasized authority of Scriptures over Church traditions.
“Sola scriptura”
“Priesthood of all believers”
Mainly literal interpretations
Sometimes allegorical interpretations
Post-Reformation
“Between the Reformation and the Modern Period, people mainly applied a literal approach to the biblical texts.”
“Also, a great emphasis was placed on personal piety during this time. The Bible came to be seen as a source of personal piety and devotional life.”
Biblical Interpretation – Modern Period
Historical Criticism
Resulted from rationalism and the Enlightenment.
What is the historical reliability of the Bible?
Investigative in nature.
Looking for the literary and historical context of the text.
Literary Criticism
Literary criticism is based in historical criticism.
It covers many methods that seek to explain the meaning of the text by “evaluating the literary structure and features, date of writing, authorship, original audience, literary sources, and so forth.”
Examples of specific branches of literary criticism:
Source criticism
Genre criticism
Rhetorical criticism
Structuralism
Narrative criticism
And many others…
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Sources
Varughese, Alex, et al.
Discovering the Old Testament. Kansas City : Beacon Hill Press, 2003.
Kugel, James L. How to
Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture Then and Now.
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